The one-compartment analysis yielded similar emtricitabine exposure parameters to the noncompartmental analysis. A summary of the pharmacokinetic parameters from the noncompartmental analysis for emtricitabine antepartum and postpartum is provided in Table 2. Figure 3 depicts the median antepartum and postpartum concentration–time curves. Geometric mean (90% CI) emtricitabine pharmacokinetic parameters during the third trimester compared with postpartum, respectively, for AUC were 8.0 (7.1–8.9) mg h/L vs. 9.7 (8.6–10.9) mg h/L (P = 0.072), for CL/F were 25.0 (22.6–28.3) L/hr vs. 20.6 (18.4–23.2) L/hr (P = 0.025), and for 24 hour post dose concentration (C24)

were 0.058 (0.037–0.063) Dabrafenib solubility dmso mg/L vs. 0.085 (0.070–0.010) mg/L (P = 0.006). All but one pregnant subject had C24 ≥0.037 mg/L,

well above the inhibitory concentration 50%, or drug concentration that suppresses viral replication by half (IC50) for emtricitabine of 0.004 mg/L and close to the IC90 of 0.051 mg/L. The lowest postpartum C24 was 0.07 mg/L, exceeding the IC90. One pregnant woman had a detectable pre-dose emtricitabine concentration, but had C24 below the limit selleck screening library of detection (< 0.0118 mg/L). Postpartum, four different women had pre-dose emtricitabine levels below the limit of detection but all had detectable emtricitabine concentrations at 24 hours post-dose. Umbilical cord blood samples were collected for 16 subjects; maternal plasma samples at delivery were available for 15 of the 16 subjects; emtricitabine was undetectable in three maternal and four cord blood samples. The geometric mean of the measurable maternal concentrations at delivery was 0.15 mg/L (90% Histidine ammonia-lyase CI 0.09–0.26 mg/L) and that of the cord blood concentrations was 0.26 mg/L (90% CI 0.17–0.39 mg/L).

The geometric mean ratio of cord/maternal concentrations in 11 paired subject samples with detectable concentrations was 1.2 (90% CI 1.0–1.5). The median time between the last dose of emtricitabine and delivery was 18.6 hours (range 2.7–50.0 hours). Overall, emtricitabine was well tolerated during pregnancy and postpartum, with only three subjects experiencing grade 3 adverse events of elevated bilirubin while taking emtricitabine. All three of these subjects were concomitantly taking atazanavir, which is known to cause hyperbilirubinaemia. Of the four subjects who discontinued emtricitabine prior to the postpartum pharmacokinetic evaluation, none indicated side effects of emtricitabine as a reason for discontinuation. Twenty-four subjects had viral loads <400 HIV-1 RNA copies/mL at delivery; viral loads were missing in two subjects. At the postpartum evaluation, viral loads were < 400 copies/mL in 15 women, were ≥400 copies/mL in four women, and were not obtained in seven women.

In addition, the use of LAB was effective in decreasing the VBN content (Table 3). It has been reported that homofermentative

LAB inoculants can decrease wasteful fermentation end products including ammonium nitrate and volatile fatty acids, which cause higher DM losses (Pahlow & Honig, 1994). DM is a material remaining after removal of water and contains the main nutrients found in feeds for animal growth (McDonald et al., 1991). TO1002 was useful for keeping a significantly higher DM, Bleomycin cell line and the DM recovery also differed in a strain-dependent manner. Similarly, the numbers of viable microorganisms differed (Table 3). The LAB-inoculated samples maintained significantly higher numbers of LAB and had lower numbers of aerobic bacteria as well as undetectable levels of molds and yeasts. These results indicate that lower pH-resistant L. plantarum

subsp. plantarum can survive in silage with acidic conditions for 30 days and inhibit the growth of undesirable microorganisms such as molds and yeasts. The viability of coliform bacteria, bacilli, and clostridia in the TO1000- and TO1001-containing samples fell below detectable levels, whereas those in the TO1002 and TO1003 samples tended to be detectable but were significantly or moderately depressed. Considering the differences in organic acid contents and pH values find more among different strains of the same subspecies, the distinct growth-inhibitory activities of organic acids might influence the survival of microorganisms in fermentative processes. After 60 days of storage, all LAB-inoculated samples showed significantly lower pH values than the no-additive group, reflecting significantly higher lactic acid content (Table 4). The VBN content

in all LAB-treated Phosphoprotein phosphatase samples was slightly lower than the control sample (Table 4). Silage treated with TO1002 or TO1003 showed significantly higher DM recovery (Table 4). The numbers of LAB in LAB-treated samples were maintained after 60 days and were significantly higher than the control (Table 4). Using LAB inoculants, the survival of unfavorable microorganisms such as molds, aerobic bacteria, coliform bacteria, bacilli, and clostridia was significantly suppressed or had dropped to below detectable levels. Bacilli and clostridia, which can generate dormant and highly resistant spore-forming cells in response to severe external environments (Setlow, 2006; Driks, 2007), were detected in the TO1000-treated samples (Table 4). In the case of TO1001, yeasts were detected at the same level as the control (Table 4). Certain yeasts survive and keep their intracellular pH between 6.0 and 7.5 when the extracellular pH varies from 3.5 to 9 (Salhany et al., 1975; Borst-Pauwels & Peters, 1977; Eraso & Gancedo, 1987). Thus, the ability of LAB inoculants to improve the whole crop paddy rice silage differed depending on the strain. Some L.

, 2009). We also found evidence of genetic exchange between Xanthomonas and Betaproteobacteria. A contig from Xcm 4381 (Fig. 2c) most

closely resembled the genome of Acidovorax species JS42 (95% sequence identity over 7935 nucleotides) and, slightly more distantly (94% identity over 3327 nucleotides), resembled the genome of X. campestris pathovar vesicatoria 85-10. This region encodes a predicted CDK activation TrbK-like protein. TrbK is usually plasmid associated (Haase et al., 1996), but the corresponding genomic regions in Acidovorax species JS42 and in X. campestris pathovar vesicatoria 85-10 appear to be chromosomally located. It is unclear whether the 23-kb Xcm 4381 contig (Fig. 2c) represents a plasmid or is part of the chromosome. Plant-pathogenic Xanthomonas pathovars require a T3SS to secrete and translocate effector proteins (Alfano & Collmer, 2004; Yang et al., 2005; Grant et al., 2006; Gurlebeck et al., 2006;

White et al., 2006, 2009; Kay & Bonas, 2009; Buttner & Bonas, 2010) in order to cause disease. These effectors have evolved to manipulate host cellular processes to the benefit of the pathogen; however, many plants have evolved resistance whereby they can recognize specific effectors, triggering the hypersensitive response. Therefore, in the context of a resistant plant, these effectors show an ‘avirulence’ activity, thus limiting the pathogen’s host range (Alfano & Collmer, 2004; Yang et al., 2005; Grant et al., 2006; Gurlebeck et al., 2006; White et al., 2006, 2009; Rapamycin supplier Kay & Bonas, 2009; Buttner & E7080 Bonas, 2010). A single Xanthomonas genome

typically encodes 20–30 T3SS effectors. The repertoire of effectors varies between species and strains within species and is believed to be a key determinant in the host range of a given pathogen. The draft genomes of both Xcm 4381 and Xvv 702 encoded a complete T3SS apparatus. To identify homologues of known T3SS effectors, we used blast searches against catalogues of proteins from the Pseudomonas syringae Hop Identification and Nomenclature Home Page (http://www.pseudomonas-syringae.org/), The Xanthomonas Resource (http://www.xanthomonas.org/t3e.html) and papers by White et al. (2009) and Gurlebeck et al. (2006). In common with all previously sequenced Xanthomonas genomes, both draft genomes encode homologues of the candidate T3SS effectors AvrBs2, AvrGf1, XopF, XopK, XopL, XopN, XopP, XopQ, XopR, XopX and XopZ. Both strains also encode homologues of XopA, XopB, XopG, XopH, XopI, XopY, XopAA, XopAD, XopAE and XopAK, which are conserved in a subset of the previously sequenced Xanthomonas genomes (http://www.xanthomonas.org/t3e.html). Both Xcm 4381 and Xvv 702 also encode proteins sharing 71% amino acid sequence identity with P. syringae effector HopW1; these have no significant sequence similarity to any known Xanthomonas protein (Fig. 3). Both draft genomes contained genes encoding homologues of the P.

, 2009). We also found evidence of genetic exchange between Xanthomonas and Betaproteobacteria. A contig from Xcm 4381 (Fig. 2c) most

closely resembled the genome of Acidovorax species JS42 (95% sequence identity over 7935 nucleotides) and, slightly more distantly (94% identity over 3327 nucleotides), resembled the genome of X. campestris pathovar vesicatoria 85-10. This region encodes a predicted Cobimetinib TrbK-like protein. TrbK is usually plasmid associated (Haase et al., 1996), but the corresponding genomic regions in Acidovorax species JS42 and in X. campestris pathovar vesicatoria 85-10 appear to be chromosomally located. It is unclear whether the 23-kb Xcm 4381 contig (Fig. 2c) represents a plasmid or is part of the chromosome. Plant-pathogenic Xanthomonas pathovars require a T3SS to secrete and translocate effector proteins (Alfano & Collmer, 2004; Yang et al., 2005; Grant et al., 2006; Gurlebeck et al., 2006;

White et al., 2006, 2009; Kay & Bonas, 2009; Buttner & Bonas, 2010) in order to cause disease. These effectors have evolved to manipulate host cellular processes to the benefit of the pathogen; however, many plants have evolved resistance whereby they can recognize specific effectors, triggering the hypersensitive response. Therefore, in the context of a resistant plant, these effectors show an ‘avirulence’ activity, thus limiting the pathogen’s host range (Alfano & Collmer, 2004; Yang et al., 2005; Grant et al., 2006; Gurlebeck et al., 2006; White et al., 2006, 2009; click here Kay & Bonas, 2009; Buttner & Target Selective Inhibitor Library Bonas, 2010). A single Xanthomonas genome

typically encodes 20–30 T3SS effectors. The repertoire of effectors varies between species and strains within species and is believed to be a key determinant in the host range of a given pathogen. The draft genomes of both Xcm 4381 and Xvv 702 encoded a complete T3SS apparatus. To identify homologues of known T3SS effectors, we used blast searches against catalogues of proteins from the Pseudomonas syringae Hop Identification and Nomenclature Home Page (http://www.pseudomonas-syringae.org/), The Xanthomonas Resource (http://www.xanthomonas.org/t3e.html) and papers by White et al. (2009) and Gurlebeck et al. (2006). In common with all previously sequenced Xanthomonas genomes, both draft genomes encode homologues of the candidate T3SS effectors AvrBs2, AvrGf1, XopF, XopK, XopL, XopN, XopP, XopQ, XopR, XopX and XopZ. Both strains also encode homologues of XopA, XopB, XopG, XopH, XopI, XopY, XopAA, XopAD, XopAE and XopAK, which are conserved in a subset of the previously sequenced Xanthomonas genomes (http://www.xanthomonas.org/t3e.html). Both Xcm 4381 and Xvv 702 also encode proteins sharing 71% amino acid sequence identity with P. syringae effector HopW1; these have no significant sequence similarity to any known Xanthomonas protein (Fig. 3). Both draft genomes contained genes encoding homologues of the P.

A relatively clear picture emerges, relating chemotherapy-induced cognitive decline to neurogenesis and neurogenesis to learning. However, despite some recent advances (Lacefield

et al., 2012), it is not known how disruption of neurogenesis alters learning-related synchronised neural activity such as theta oscillations in the hippocampus (3–12 Hz, see Buzsáki, 2002). Proportionately more hippocampal theta activity predicts faster and better learning (Berry selleck chemical & Thompson, 1978; Nokia et al., 2009, 2012), and learning itself induces theta activity during training in animals (Hoffmann & Berry, 2009; Wikgren et al., 2010) and humans (for reviews see Duzel et al., 2010; Jutras & Buffalo, 2010). It is suggested that synchronised oscillatory activity facilitates communication between anatomically distant, but functionally related, structures during learning. Thus, a disruption in theta activity in response to chemotherapy may prevent interregional communication, leading to deficits in learning. The hippocampus is necessary for many aspects of learning, but typically not for long-term memory storage (Takehara et al., 2003). Therefore, we hypothesised

that chemotherapy would disrupt learning but not memory. To test these hypotheses, adult male Sprague–Dawley rats were treated with temozolomide (TMZ) and then trained on classical eyeblink conditioning, while hippocampal local-field potentials were recorded. Dividing cells were labeled at different time points to allow examination of the various potential effects of TMZ on adult neurogenesis. TMZ is a chemotherapeutic agent Apitolisib used in a cyclic manner for several months to treat central nervous system tumors (gliomas) in both children and adults (Lashkari et al., 2011). Trace and very long delay (VLD) conditioning both require an intact hippocampus for learning (Beylin et al., 2001), whereas standard delay conditioning does not (Schmaltz & Theios, 1972). Also, in a previous study by Shors

et al. (2001), antimitotic treatment had no effect on delay conditioning, whereas it severely impaired trace conditioning. Therefore, it was hypothesised that only trace and VLD conditioning would be impaired after chemotherapy. As chemotherapy isothipendyl is assumed to exert its negative effects on cognition by disrupting neurogenesis, and the memory for a previously acquired trace-conditioned response is independent of the hippocampus (Takehara et al., 2003), i.e. is stored by mature neurons, it was also hypothesised that chemotherapy would leave the retrieval of trace memories intact. A total of 53 self-bred (Department of Psychology, Rutgers University) adult male Sprague–Dawley rats were used as subjects. They were 60–75 days old and weighed, on average, 366 g (standard error of the mean, ± 4 g) at the beginning of the experiment. Each rat was weighed weekly (Fig. S1). All rats were single-housed during the experiment, and food and water were available ad libitum.

, 2001). Our study shows that each component of the TMS-evoked response is differentially modulated by cTBS. Suppression of the MEPs seems

to be better reflected by inhibition of the P30, consistent with the non-linear correlation between trial-by-trial peak-to-peak N15–P30 and MEPs described by Maki & Ilmoniemi (2010). Our results are also consistent with the study of Ferreri et al. (2011), where trial-by-trial MEPs show a positive correlation with P30 (although on contralateral electrodes where P30 was mainly recorded) and a negative correlation with N44 (equivalent to our N45). However, the other TEPs seem to also play a role. While there is still no clear understanding of the meaning of individual TEPs, our results demonstrate that a combination of the different TEPs,

rather than just one potential, appears to be important for the prediction of MEP amplitude. Bcl-2 cancer To export measures of cTBS-induced plasticity outside the motor cortex, one might need to know in advance the coefficients linking the different TEPs with the estimated excitability. Given the small number of trials collected in each condition, the present study only allows group-level analysis (grand-average). Future studies, with a larger number of trials collected around the time points of interest, will be necessary to extend our observations Obeticholic Acid to the individual level. Finally, as cTBS-induced plasticity is known to be altered by age or pathologies (Pascual-Leone et al., 2011), it is reasonable to expect that the relationship between TEPs and MEPs will be population-dependent. Note that some TEPs might not reflect direct brain response to TMS, but rather indirect potentials, such as auditory potentials evoked by the discharge click (Nikouline et al., 1999), or somatosensory potentials evoked by the contraction of the muscle (MEP). Concerning auditory-evoked potentials, the N100 component has, in particular, been associated with this physiological artifact.

However, this same component is also task-dependent and has been associated with inhibitory processes (Bender et al., 2005; Bonnard et al., 2009; Spieser et al., 2010). Although we cannot rule out that in our study cTBS modulated auditory-evoked potentials, we consider it unlikely. On the contrary, it is possible that O-methylated flavonoid modulation of MEP size resulted in modulation of the associated somatosensory-evoked potentials. Future studies with subthreshold stimulation are needed to isolate primary brain responses to TMS from afferent feedback from the target muscle. We found that TMS over M1 induced oscillations before cTBS in the entire frequency range studied. These TMS-induced oscillations were modulated by cTBS. TMS-induced low frequencies (theta and alpha) decreased after cTBS while TMS-induced higher frequencies (high beta) tended to increase after cTBS.

In this context, cardiovascular disease has emerged as an increasing cause of morbidity [2-4] and mortality [5-7] in HIV-infected patients. A high prevalence of tobacco, alcohol and illicit drug consumption [8, 9], immunodeficiency [10], and immune activation and inflammation buy FK866 caused by HIV replication [11, 12] are contributing factors that may explain the

higher than expected incidence of cardiovascular disease in HIV-infected persons. Effective antiretroviral therapy is able to ameliorate immunodeficiency and to decrease immune activation and inflammation, but it cannot entirely resolve the problems associated with HIV infection [13, 14]. In addition, some antiretroviral drugs may themselves contribute to cardiovascular disease by causing metabolic abnormalities and possibly through other mechanisms that are not yet completely understood [4, 15]. Specific sections addressing the prevention of PI3K inhibitor cardiovascular disease have been developed in major guidelines for the management of HIV infection [16-18]. In addition to earlier initiation of antiretroviral therapy, the updated 2011 version

of the European AIDS Clinical Society guidelines recommends the promotion of healthy lifestyle measures and adequate management of diabetes, dyslipidaemia and hypertension [17]. In general, recommendations for HIV-infected patients follow those for the general population, assuming that similar responses to the management of traditional cardiovascular risk factors will result in similar

benefits in terms of decreasing the risk of cardiovascular disease. A critical unanswered question regarding the assessment, prevention and management of cardiovascular disease in HIV-infected patients is the degree to Celecoxib which traditional risk factors such as smoking, diabetes and hypertension increase cardiovascular risk in the HIV-infected population. This is an important question because HIV-infected patients are at risk of cardiovascular disease at a younger age than the general population, with HIV infection, antiretroviral therapy, and other risk factors and comorbid conditions modifying the effects of a given risk factor. Although smoking, diabetes and hypertension have consistently been shown to be involved in the development of cardiovascular disease in both HIV-uninfected and HIV-infected adults, the prevalence of these factors may vary between HIV-infected and HIV- uninfected adults, and, if this is the case, different interventions may require to be prioritized in HIV-infected patients. The contributions of smoking, diabetes and hypertension to myocardial infarction may also depend on additional factors such as the geographical origin of the population.

Sixteen of these (15%) presented with AOI at baseline. After 6 months therapy 13 patients (81%) resolved AOI while two presented an Hb level reduction. After 6 months therapy we did not find a significant statistical improvement in red blood cell numbers (P = 0.85) and transferrin (P = 0.08) levels. Hb, mean corpuscular volume (MCV), iron, ferritin, C-reactive protein (CRP) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) improved reaching statistical significance (P = 0.0002, 0.0001, 0.001, AZD5363 price 0.014; 0.007, 0.004, respectively). Conclusion:  We found 15% frequency of AOI among a selected series of patients with AS. After 6 months of anti-TNFα therapy AOI resolved in the majority of patients

with significant improvement of Hb, MCV, CRP and ESR levels. “
“To evaluate the prevalence and severity of periodontal disease in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) who attended a rheumatology clinic in a university hospital. All consecutive patients with RA who attended the rheumatology clinic between June 2009 and January 2010 were asked to enroll in this buy Dactolisib study. All participants answered questionnaires, which included demographic

data, medical history, medications used and smoking habits. A full mouth periodontal examination, including gingival index, plaque index, probing pocket depth and clinical attachment level was performed. Only cases that had at least 20 teeth were included in this study. Rheumatoid arthritis parameters, including number of tender and swollen joints, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, the presence of rheumatoid factor (RF), hand radiographs, Disease Activity Index (DAS) and health status using the Thai Health Assessment Questionnaire (HAQ), were determined. The association between RA parameters and periodontal condition was examined. There were 196 participants (87.2% female) with a mean age of 51.7 ± 9.70 years, mean disease duration of 9.62 ± 7.0 years and mean DAS score of 4.64 ± 1.25. Eighty-two per cent were RF-positive. Moderate and severe periodontitis were

found in 42% and 57%, respectively. Higher age, male gender, previous or current smoking and high level of plaque score were associated with severe periodontal disease. No differences in RA parameters were found between groups of patients who had moderate and severe periodontitis. We found a high prevalence of periodontitis MycoClean Mycoplasma Removal Kit in Thai patients with RA. However, there was no association between RA parameters and periodontal conditions. “
“Aims:  To describe clinical features of patients with ankylosing spondylitis (AS) from southern and northern China, and investigate the effects of onset age, gender and regional differences on disease phenotype. Methods:  Totally 113 AS patients from southern China and 121 AS patients from northern China were analyzed retrospectively. Results:  In southern and northern groups, low back pain was more frequent among initial symptoms (54.9% vs. 7.7%; 52.4% vs.

As noted in the RAD001 cell line Introduction, the direct evidence available excludes neither possibility because it is clear that Ygf Z dimerizes readily, at least ex vivo (Teplyakov et al., 2004), and that at least some Ygf Z exists with a free thiol inside plant cells (Hägglund et al., 2008). It will not be possible to show definitively whether Ygf Z works as a disulphide-bonded dimer or as a thiol monomer (or both) until the action of Ygf Z can be reconstituted in vitro. However, the balance of present evidence favours the thiol monomer, as summarized

in the following. Firstly, there is reason to suspect that Ygf Z dimer formation is unphysiological. Thus, the three-dimensional structure of the dimer suggests that the intermolecular C228-C228′ disulphide bridge might not be functionally relevant because the dimer interface formed by multiple nonspecific van der Waals interactions is not extensive and contains none of the conserved dodecapeptide motif residues except C228 (Teplyakov et al., 2004). Moreover, in our pilot tests, recombinant Ygf Z isolated from E. coli was 65% monomeric even when no reductants were added (not shown). Secondly, E. coli Ygf Z has been shown to have a

redox-active cysteine, Doramapimod in vitro i.e. a free thiol group, in vivo (Takanishi et al., 2007). Besides C228, Ygf Z has one other cysteine residue, C63, and it was not shown which is the redox-active one (Takanishi et al., 2007). However, the crystal structure places C63 at the C-terminal end of a β-strand in domain B, which makes the sulfhydryl solvent inaccessible, and C228 in an exposed surface loop between two α-helices (α9 and α10) of the Ygf Z monomer (Teplyakov et al., 2004), suggesting that the latter is the redox-active residue. Finally, Ygf Z belongs to the same protein family as sarcosine oxidase, dimethylglycine oxidase and the T-protein of the glycine-cleavage complex. All of these proteins

use tetrahydrofolate to accept a one-carbon (formaldehyde) unit (Teplyakov et al., 2004; Scrutton & Leys, 2005), and the one structurally closest to Ygf Z – the T-protein – acts on a thiol adduct of the one-carbon unit, borne by the H-protein of the complex (Douce et al., 2001). Formaldehyde is a ubiquitous metabolite that spontaneously forms harmful adducts with reactive protein side chains (Metz et al., DCLK1 2004), and it has been proposed that Ygf Z removes such inhibitory adducts from Fe/S enzymes by transferring the formaldehyde moiety to tetrahydrofolate (Waller et al., 2010). In such an enzyme repair mechanism, a cysteine thiol could logically play a go-between role, analogous to that of the active thiol in the glycine-cleavage complex, by binding formaldehyde after its removal from an Fe/S enzyme and before its transfer to tetrahydrofolate. A repair role for Ygf Z is not incompatible with the proposal that Ygf Z facilitates the breakdown of plumbagin (Lin et al.

However, major limitations in the techniques used for the acquisition and analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data have hitherto precluded segregation of function with the amygdala in humans. Here, we used high-resolution fMRI in combination with a region-of-interest-based normalization method to differentiate functionally the contributions of distinct subregions within the human amygdala during two different types of instrumental conditioning: reward and avoidance learning. Through the application of a computational-model-based analysis, we found evidence for a dissociation

between the contributions of the basolateral and centromedial complexes in the representation of specific computational signals during Nivolumab learning, with the basolateral complex contributing more to reward learning, and the centromedial complex more to avoidance learning. These results provide unique insights into the computations being implemented within fine-grained amygdala circuits in the human brain. “
“Cerebellar function is regulated by cholinergic mossy fiber inputs that are primarily derived from the medial vestibular nucleus (MVN) and prepositus hypoglossi Antiinfection Compound Library purchase nucleus (PHN). In contrast to the growing

evidence surrounding cholinergic transmission and its functional significance in the cerebellum, the intrinsic and synaptic properties of cholinergic projection neurons (ChPNs) have not been clarified. In this study, we generated choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)-tdTomato transgenic rats, which specifically express the fluorescent protein tdTomato in cholinergic neurons, and used them to investigate the response properties of ChPNs identified via buy Atezolizumab retrograde labeling using whole-cell recordings in brainstem slices. In response to current pulses, ChPNs exhibited two afterhyperpolarisation (AHP) profiles and three firing patterns; the predominant AHP and firing properties differed between the MVN and PHN. Morphologically, the ChPNs were separated into two types based on their soma size and dendritic extensions. Analyses of the firing responses to time-varying sinusoidal

current stimuli revealed that ChPNs exhibited different firing modes depending on the input frequencies. The maximum frequencies in which each firing mode was observed were different between the neurons that exhibited distinct firing patterns. Analyses of the current responses to the application of neurotransmitter receptor agonists revealed that the ChPNs expressed (i) AMPA- and NMDA-type glutamate receptors, (ii) GABAA and glycine receptors, and (iii) muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. The current responses mediated by these receptors of MVN ChPNs were not different from those of PHN ChPNs. These findings suggest that ChPNs receive various synaptic inputs and encode those inputs appropriately across different frequencies.