Indeed, the causative or the correlative relation between changes in lung mycobiota and disease onset

needs to be proven by expanding the number of samples and moving forward the study from the species to the strain level. The human Fulvestrant research buy GI tract is known to contain a variable fungal microbiota, but the phylogenetic characteristics of those fungal microorganisms and their specific roles as part of the GI tract ecosystem have not yet been studied extensively. Despite its harsh environment, the stomach harbors a microbiota that can include Lactobacillus, Helicobacter, and Candida spp. [147]. Candida colonization of the GI tract of mice has been shown to drive allergic sensitization to food Ags by affecting the mucosal barrier [148]. In particular, intragastrically inoculated mice were administered with OVA to assess Ag sensitization and GI permeability, and anti-OVA Ab titers and plasma concentrations of OVA were measured weekly. The authors showed that C. albicans promoted allergic sensitization was due to mast cell mediated hyperpermeability in the GI mucosa [148]. In healthy human volunteers, another

group carried out both FK506 concentration culture-independent analyses, based on DNA extraction and PCR targeting of both total eukaryotic 18S rRNA genes and fungal ITS, together with culture-dependent analyses of fungi [19]. This study found that the eukaryotic diversity of the human gut is low, largely temporally stable, and dominated by various subtypes of Blastocystis and Candida [19]. The low diversity is likely an artifact due to the fact that the most abundant species occur in the cultivable fraction, particularly Candida spp. The culture-independent analysis revealed a greater number of genera, such as Gloeotinia/Paecilomyces and Galactomyces,

suggesting the importance of using culture-independent surveys to assess species composition [19]. An example of the large variability of the human gut mycobiota was recently provided by a study Methamphetamine of four children and their respective mothers, which reported that infants harbor Saccharomyces spp. as opposed to Candida as the most frequent fungal species in the gut (36%) with respect to their mothers [149]. Whether S. cerevisiae is present in the human gut at birth remains to be elucidated. It is possible that yeasts simply reach the GI tract through food. Fermented foods and beverages containing eukaryotic species such as bread, beer, and wine are consumed on a daily basis, providing ready inocula for the host [19]. Alternatively, it is possible that differences in fungal colonization are related to differences in the genetic makeup of the host or differences in gut permeability. The numerous and diverse interactions between fungi, bacteria, and immune responses can significantly impact gut health and likely contribute to the pathobiology of GI disorders from irritable bowel syndrome to IBD.