However, the lack of efficacy of LGG in several clinical trials with IBD patients [22–24,27] and in animal models of colitis [28,29] suggests that LGG contains factors that confound its anti-inflammatory effects in vivo. Lipoteichoic acid (LTA) is a macroamphiphilic molecule anchored in the cytoplasmic membrane through its glycolipid moiety. It consists of a glycerol-phosphate or ribitol-phosphate chain decorated with d-alanine ester or glycosyl substitutions, and extending into the cell wall [30]. It is generally regarded as a proinflammatory

bacterial molecule. LTA can be seen as the Gram-positive counterpart of Gram-negative lipopolysaccharides (LPS) [31,32], as both molecules stimulate macrophages to secrete proinflammatory cytokines in vitro, although LTA is generally less active [33]. The in vivo importance of the proinflammatory potential of LTA of gut bacteria is less clear. Ku 0059436 In healthy conditions, LTA does not cause excessive inflammation in the gut, as intestinal epithelial cells have developed special mechanisms to tolerate

the continuous exposure to LTA of commensals in the gut lumen, such as down-regulation of TLR expression [34,35]. In the inflamed and more permeable gut of IBD patients LTA can, however, be hypothesized to activate macrophages and other inflammatory cells [36], although this needs to be substantiated further. In the present work, we investigated the impact of a dedicated gene-knock-out Selleck Staurosporine mutation (dltD) on the anti-inflammatory efficacy of the probiotic strain LGG in a murine experimental colitis model. This LGG dltD mutant was constructed and characterized previously [37]. Its LTA molecules were shown to be completely devoid

of d-alanine esters, drastically altering the LTA structure in situ on live LGG bacterial cells [37]. We induced colitis in mice by administration of dextran sulphate sodium (DSS) to focus on the involvement of epithelial barrier disruption and innate immunity. Pathogen-free female BALB/c and C57/BL6 mice, 6–8 weeks old, weighing 16–22 g, were obtained from Harlan (Zeist, the Netherlands). The mice were housed in conventional filter-top cages and had free access to commercial feed and water. All experiments were performed under the approval of the K. U. Leuven Animal Experimentation Adenosine triphosphate Ethics Committee (Project approval number 027/2008). Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (ATCC53103) (LGG) and its derivatives CMPG5540 (dltD mutant; tetracycline resistant) [37] and CMPG5340 (wild-type control strain used in the in vivo persistence analysis; erythromycin and tetracycline resistant) [38] were grown routinely at 37°C in de Man–Rogosa–Sharpe (MRS) medium (Difco; BD Biosciences, Erembodegem, Belgium) under static conditions. For solid medium, 15 g/l agar was used. If required, antibiotics were used at the following concentrations: 5 µg/ml of erythromycin and 10 µg/ml of tetracycline.