, 2013). Monitoring at least two reference conditions and focusing on at least two variables Tofacitinib within each of three ecosystem attributes (diversity, vegetation [e.g., cover, structure, biomass], ecological processes [e.g., nutrient pools and cycling, soil organic matter, mycorrhizae]) has been recommended (Ruiz-Jaén and Aide, 2005b) as a way to improve post-restoration strategies (Herrick et al., 2006). Ecological process monitoring

is seldom attempted, partly because most processes are difficult to monitor, may be slow to change, and the monitoring phase for restoration projects seldom lasts more than 5 years (Ruiz-Jaén and Aide, 2005a and Ruiz-Jaén and Aide, 2005b). Short-term success, however, may not predict long-term sustainability (Herrick et al., 2006) and incorporating an understanding of ecosystem

development patterns in the monitoring design may enable identifying deviation from objectives and the need for corrective intervention (Dey and Schweitzer, 2014). Spatial disaggregation of monitoring effort based on fundamental attributes, such as soil and site stability, hydrological functions, and biotic integrity, facilitates process monitoring (Palik et al., 2000, Herrick et al., 2006 and Doren et al., 2009). Selecting which indicators to monitor is daunting. The goal is to use the smallest set of indicators that can be simply and easily measured (Burton, 2014) to sufficiently monitor change, support science-based decision-making, and effectively communicate results to the public (Doren et al., 2009 and Dey and Schweitzer, cAMP inhibitor 2014). Criteria for choosing indicators can be found in Dey and Schweitzer, 2014 and Doren et al., 2009. Indicators may also span multiple scales, Tryptophan synthase including specific landscape metrics (Lausch and Herzog, 2002, Sayer et al., 2007 and Cushman et al., 2008), resources

such as wildlife (Block et al., 2001 and McCoy and Mushinsky, 2002), and social expectations (Hallett et al., 2013). Conversely, Stanturf et al. (2014) used sustainability attributes of forests to display indicators of degradation that could be reversed and used as indicators of restoration. Indicators are what gets monitored and should be easy to measure, reliable, and have predictive as well as monitoring capability (Burton, 2014 and Crow, 2014). Ground-based monitoring is time consuming, and therefore expensive, but resolution of species diversity and structure on a small scale is high, and this is the only method for examining most ecological processes. When resources are limited, focusing on indicator or keystone species may be a valid compromise (González et al., 2013 and Mouquet et al., 2013). Remote sensing has advantages, especially as the size of the project area becomes larger, but a technique such as aerial photography is less robust in differentiating species (Shuman and Ambrose, 2003).