Similarly, there are many aspects of ecological restoration, including but not limited to tree species composition and aquatic ecosystems, which our narrow focus on forest structure did not consider. Given these limitations, our results should not be interpreted below the resolution of individual watersheds (5th field hydrologic units, average ∼46,000 ha). In addition,

the restoration transitions we report in this study do not directly correspond to the concepts of “active restoration” and “passive restoration” which are referenced in other discussions of forest restoration (e.g., Morrison and Lindell, 2011). Active restoration typically refers to direct intervention or manipulation, such as mechanically thinning a forest stand, whereas passive restoration typically refers to no action, selleck such as letting a natural fire ignition burn. Yet both of these scenarios, mechanical treatment and letting a natural ignition burn, may be included in our disturbance transitions. Whether active or passive restoration means are used within a specific location to achieve identified disturbance restoration needs depends upon forest ownership and management allocation for that location.

We recognize that there are many significant Z-VAD-FMK mouse differences in the ecological outcomes of mechanical treatments versus prescribed fire versus wildfire (Schwilk et al., 2009). Furthermore, fire is frequently required following mechanical treatment Cetuximab manufacturer in order to meet ecological and/or forest fuels objectives (Schwilk et al., 2009). However, we consider that either mechanism is capable of achieving the coarse s-class transitions that we report in this study. As our understanding of historical and future

ecosystem dynamics, classification and mapping of biophysical settings, and measurement of current conditions across Oregon and Washington improves, new data may be incorporated into our conceptual approach to revise the results presented here. Our conceptual approach is also applicable to other regions. The basic concepts of our approach may be applied anywhere that the foundational inputs of biophysical setting classification and mapping, reference conditions, landscape units, and mapping of current conditions is available. There is great value having a consistent approach to evaluating where, how much, and what kinds of forest restoration are needed across regional scales. We thank Darren Borgias, Miles Hemstrom, Rick Brown, Kerry Metlen, Reese Lolley, Tom Sensenig, and Patricia Hochalter, and two anonymous reviewers for providing helpful feedback during development of the potential vegetation type – biophysical setting crosswalk and on earlier versions of this manuscript. Funding was provided by the US Forest Service Pacific Northwest Region, The Nature Conservancy in Oregon, The Nature Conservancy in Washington, and the Icicle Fund.